Publications

Purpose: This mixed-methods study examined how differences in parental time, knowledge, and economic constraints, as well as community socioeconomic contexts, may contribute to differences in home language environment and child language ability outcomes between peri-urban and rural households in China.

Method: We conducted an explanatory sequential mixed-methods analysis using data from 158 children aged 18–24 months among peri-urban and rural households with low socioeconomic status (SES) in southwestern China. Audio recordings were collected from each household and analyzed using the Language ENvironment Analysis system. The Mandarin version of the MacArthur–Bates Communicative Development Inventories was administered to each child's primary caregiver. We also conducted qualitative interviews with primary caregivers in 31 peri-urban and 32 rural households. Interviews were recorded, transcribed, and coded.

Results: The quantitative results reveal that children in peri-urban households heard less adult speech and had lower language ability than children in rural households. Directed content analysis of interviews found that peri-urban caregivers faced more severe time constraints and less favorable community socioeconomic contexts than rural primary caregivers. Taken together, these findings suggest that differences in time constraints and community socioeconomic contexts between the two populations are the most likely factors contributing to the inferior language environment and language ability among children in peri-urban households.

Conclusion: The mixed-methods study indicated that parental time constraints and community socioeconomic contexts should be considered alongside SES for a comprehensive understanding of factors influencing parental investment in the home language environment in China.

The literature has shown that cognitive and non-cognitive development before the age of three is associated with children’s levels of development at later ages. However, the extent to which the different pathways of cognitive and non-cognitive development before age three (between 6–12 months and 22–30 months of age) are associated with developmental outcomes at primary school age remains unknown. This study aims to examine this research question using three waves of longitudinal data collected from 1087 children aged 9 to 10 years and their primary caregivers in rural China. Results demonstrated four pathways of cognitive and non-cognitive development between 6–12 months and 22–30 months of age. The four pathways include: “never delayed”, “persistently delayed”, “improving”, or “deteriorating.” Children that experienced either persistently delayed or deteriorating development had lower levels of cognitive and non-cognitive development and performed worse academically than children that were never delayed when they were 9–10 years old. Maternal education attainment, family assets, and whether the child was born prematurely all predicted the child’s entry into different developmental pathways. Findings suggest that early childhood development screening and interventions that aim to facilitate healthy early development among children under three years old are needed for rural China’s young children.

Background
Despite the benefits of exclusive breastfeeding, the proportion of exclusively breastfed children remains low in rural China. Self-efficacy is one of the most crucial modifiable factors predicting breastfeeding behavior. However, existing instruments in China do not specifically measure self-efficacy for exclusive breastfeeding but rather measure self-efficacy for any breastfeeding. Furthermore, they have been validated only in high-income Chinese settings. We sought to adapt and validate an instrument to measure exclusive breastfeeding self-efficacy within rural Chinese contexts.

Methods
We introduced relevant items to Dennis’ Breastfeeding Self-Efficacy Scale-Short Form (BSES-SF), which can assess maternal self-efficacy for exclusive breastfeeding. It was then implemented in a multistage random cluster sampling design and cross-sectional survey with home-visit interviews among women 0–6 months postpartum (n = 654) in the rural areas of four counties in Sichuan, China. We performed item-total and adjusted item-total correlations, as well as exploratory factor analysis to remove redundant items and determine the latent factor structure. We further applied confirmatory factor analysis to test the dimensionality of the scale. We then assessed the reliability of the scale and conducted tests of predictive and divergent validity. Known group comparisons were made by primiparous status and breastfeeding support level. We compared the validated Exclusive Breastfeeding Self-Efficacy Scale with the BSES-SF in terms of reliability and validity to explore the added value of scale modification.

Results
Our modification of the BSES-SF to target exclusive breastfeeding produced 19 items. This was further reduced to 15 items based on adjusted item-total correlations and exploratory factor analysis, forming the Exclusive Breastfeeding Self-Efficacy Scale. This scale had three dimensions: “Breast milk supply and quality,” “Breastfeeding skills,” and “Exclusive breastfeeding” subscales. The Exclusive Breastfeeding Self-Efficacy Scale demonstrated strong internal consistency and overall reliability with a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.91. Predictive and divergent validity and known group comparison assessments supported its validity. Robust psychometric evaluations demonstrated enhanced validity and reliability compared to the original BSES-SF.

Conclusions
Our Exclusive Breastfeeding Self-Efficacy Scale is valid and reliable for measuring exclusive breastfeeding self-efficacy within rural Chinese contexts and is ready for adaptation and validation for clinical and programmatic use elsewhere, particularly within LMICs.

Against the backdrop of China’s post-1978 economic transformation, recent challenges such as COVID-19 have prompted speculations about rising popular pessimism regarding current inequalities and opportunities to get ahead. This study compares findings from three new nationally representative surveys conducted in 2023 with three earlier surveys from 2004, 2009, and 2014. Results reveal a significant attitudinal shift, with 2023 respondents expressing markedly more critical views about the fairness of current inequality patterns. Respondents in the 2023 surveys increasingly attribute poverty versus wealth to structural factors like unequal opportunities rather than to variations in individual merit. Respondents also reported lower expectations for future income growth compared with the earlier surveys. While not indicating imminent threats to political stability, such trends suggest that China’s leaders will likely face increasing skepticism and even critical popular responses as they try to mobilize their citizens to confront the serious challenges that China faces in coming years.

A country’s national income broadly depends on the quantity and quality of workers and capital. But how well these factors are managed within and between firms may be a key determinant of a country’s productivity and its GDP. Although social scientists have long studied the role of management practices in shaping business performance, their primary tool has been individual case studies. While useful for theory-building, such qualitative work is hard to scale and quantify. We present a large, scalable dataset measuring structured management practices at the business level across multiple countries. We measure practices related to performance monitoring, target-setting, and human resources. We document a set of key stylized facts, which we label “the international empirics of management”. In all countries, firms with more structured practices tend to also have superior economic performance: they are larger in scale, are more profitable, have higher labor productivity and are more likely to export. This consistency was not obvious ex-ante, and being able to quantify these relationships is valuable. We also document significant variation in practices across and within countries, which is important in explaining differences in the wealth of nations. The positive relationship between firm size and structured management practices is stronger in countries with more open and free markets, suggesting that stronger competition may allow firms with more structured management practices to grow larger, thereby potentially raising aggregate national income.

This paper examines the correlation between cognitive ability and firm creation. Drawing on administrative college admissions data and firm registration records in China, we investigate who had created firms by their mid-30s. We find a clear pattern of entrepreneurial reluctance: Given the same backgrounds, individuals with higher college entrance exam scores are less likely to create firms. Through an exploration of firm performance, alternative career trajectories, and variations across regions, we propose an explanation: The ability represented by exam scores is useful across occupations, yet higher-scoring individuals are attracted to waged jobs, particularly those of the state sector.

Using a longitudinal data set developed from surveys of 1,285 children (and their families), as well as 683 preschools teachers in 382 preschools in rural western China, we examined the association between preschool quality and the development (cognitive and social-emotional skills) of preschool children. The findings showed that 55 % of the sample children were cognitively delayed, and 49 % of the children were social-emotionally delayed at age 3. The rates of delay decreased to less than 40 % when the children were at preschool age. Although other factors were associated with the decline in development delays, according to the findings, preschool attendance respectively led to an improvement of 0.47 SD (p = 0.001) in child cognitive development (i.e., the fall in delays). More specifically, the global quality and the structural quality of preschools improved child cognitive development by 0.11 SD (p = 0.001) and 0.09 SD (p = 0.004), respectively. The findings of the subgroup analyses suggested that children from disadvantaged backgrounds benefited more from being able to attend quality preschools. Preschool quality also helped to improve developmental outcomes (cognitive abilities and social-emotional skills): for children that were developmentally delayed before age 3, but not for those children that were not delayed when they were 3 years old; for children with lower educated parents, but not for those with more highly educated parents; for children that were from relatively poor families, but not for those that were from relatively rich families; and for children that were attending preschools in rural areas, but not for those who were attending a preschool in an urban area.

In rural China, there exists a gender gap in academic achievement where girls outperform boys, suggesting similar differences in early language development. Moreover, recent research has revealed that children in peri-urban communities have worse language outcomes than children in rural communities. This study examines the impact of gender on early language development in low-SES, peri-urban Chinese communities. Data from 81 children (56.79% boys) aged 18-24 months (Mage = 21.16) living in peri-urban China were collected using two caregiver-reported tests for child language development and ability, and language environment analysis technology for measuring the home language environment. Results show that in peri-urban communities, girls were generally exposed to more adult-child conversations and showed higher counts of vocalizations than did boys; girls scored higher on language development measures than did boys. The implications of these findings on the gender gap and child development are discussed.

Purpose: Depression is a growing public health concern around the world. For adolescents, depression not only impedes healthy development, but is negatively associated with academic performance. The purpose of this paper is to examine the prevalence of adolescent depressive symptoms in a sample of rural primary and junior high school students. Additionally, we examine various factors to identify subgroups within the sample that may be more vulnerable to depression. Finally, we explore the extent to which depression correlates with academic performance and conduct a series of heterogeneity analyses.

Patients and Methods: We utilize cross-sectional data derived from 30 schools in underdeveloped regions of rural China encompassing primary and junior high school students (n = 1,609).

Results: We find a high prevalence of depression, with 23% and 9% of students experiencing general depression (depression score ≥ 14) and severe depression (depression score ≥ 21), respectively. Female gender, elevated stress and anxiety levels, boarding at school, exposure to bullying, and having depressed caregiver(s) are positively correlated with depressive symptoms, while high social support exhibits a negative association. Importantly, our analyses consistently show a significantly negative link between depression and academic performance, which is measured using standardized math tests. For instance, transitioning from a non-depressed state to a state of general depression (depression score ≥ 14) is linked to a decline of 0.348– 0.406 standard deviations in math scores (p < 0.01). Heterogeneity analyses reveal that this adverse relationship is more pronounced for male students, boarding students, those with lower social support, individuals with more educated mothers, and those with lower family assets.

Conclusion: Our findings underscore the high prevalence of depression in rural schools and the detrimental impact on academic performance. We advocate for the implementation of policies aimed at reducing student depression, particularly within vulnerable populations and subgroups.

Cognitive and social-emotional development in the first three years of life is associated with later skills. However, little is known about the paths of developmental delays in both cognitive and social-emotional skills before age 3 or to what extent these paths predict later developmental outcomes. The aim of this study is to examine the associations between the different paths of developmental delays in both cognitive and social-emotional skills of children before age 3 and the levels of development of the children when they are preschool age. Using a longitudinal data collected at three time points from 1245 children and their caregivers in rural China, we identified four different paths of developmental delays in cognitive and social-emotional before age 3 and examined how these paths are associated with different levels of developmental outcomes at preschool age. We used a non-parametric standardization approach and an ordinary least squares model to perform our analyses. Findings show that rates of developmental delays in either cognitive or social-emotional domain or both domains are high at all different time points, ranging from 20% to 55% for cognitive delays and 42% to 61% for social-emotional delays. Over half of children experienced deteriorating levels of either cognitive or social-emotional development before age 3. A large share of children was found to be persistently delayed in either domain. Only a small share of children raised their levels of development in either domain before age 3. In addition, we identified certain socioeconomic status of the family that are associated with never or deteriorating path of child developmental delays. More importantly, we revealed that different paths of developmental delays before age 3 have predictive power on different levels of developmental outcomes at preschool age. Our results suggest that actions are needed at the earliest times to improve child development when children are still infants or toddlers.

Background: The association between sleep patterns and young students’ mental health, which is crucial for their development, remains understudied in rural China. Therefore, the relationship between sleep patterns and mental health among primary and junior high school students in rural China was examined. Method: A total of 1592 primary and junior high school students from rural areas of Gansu Province were surveyed, and the Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS) was utilized to assess mental health, alongside self-reported data on their daily sleep patterns. Results: Significant sleep inadequacies were identified: 28% of students received less than 8 h of sleep on weekdays, and 19% went to bed later than recommended. On weekends, 38% of students had delayed bedtimes, though only 7.2% received less than 8 h of sleep. Notably, a “U-shaped” relationship was uncovered between sleep duration and mental health for students on weekends, with optimal mental health correlated with receiving 10–11 h of sleep, while both shorter and longer sleep durations on weekends worsened outcomes. This pattern is absent on weekdays. Additionally, adequate sleep and an earlier bedtime was linked to a 6–8% decrease in mental health risks. Conclusions: These findings provide valuable insights for policymakers seeking to enhance student mental well-being in rural settings, emphasizing the importance of implementing measures that promote balanced sleep habits among young students.

Policymakers in China have attempted to improve the quality of rural education by investing in teacher salaries through initiatives like the Rural Teachers Support Plan (RTSP). This study estimates the effects of teacher salary increase on students' educational outcomes in rural China by utilizing the exogenous variations of rural teacher salaries induced by the RTSP. It employs an intensity-based difference-in-differences strategy and panel data from 2010 to 2018 with 3,351 rural children. The findings reveal that an increase in teacher salaries had a significant positive impact on students' examination results. Moreover, the results of mechanism analysis indicate that salary increases could have both quality and quantity effects on students' outcomes by increasing the proportion of highly educated teachers and reducing the student–teacher ratio. Our findings contribute to the discussion on the importance of teacher salary incentives in education production functions and provide insights for other countries undertaking rural education reforms.

Rural girls in China stay in school longer than boys and outperform them in many subjects. This gender gap suggests analogous disparities in early childhood development, a key factor in later educational outcomes. This study examines gender disparities in social-emotional development among 1,301 children aged 18–30 months in rural China. Results indicate that male children trail their female counterparts by 0.18 SD on average on the scale of standardized ASQ:SE score. A large share of the difference is driven by the bottom 10 % of children, where the magnitude of the gender gap (0.34 SD) is 1.9 times larger than at the median (0.19 SD). Demographic characteristics are uncorrelated with the gender gap in heterogeneity analysis, suggesting that the mechanisms underlying observed gender disparities are similar across rural Chinese households.

Purpose
China’s rapid urbanization has been associated with increased mental health challenges, especially in rural-to-urban migrant children. This study evaluates the effects of mindfulness and life-skills (LS) training on emotional regulation and anxiety symptoms from a randomized controlled trial aimed at improving the mental health of Chinese migrant children.

Methods
Two intervention arms—mindfulness training (MT) and MT plus LS mentorship (MT + LS)—were compared to a waitlist control group of 368 migrant children aged 9–17 years. Volunteers were trained to deliver interventions to 285 migrant children in small groups of 15 for eight weeks weekly. Social integration varied: migrant children mixed with local children at public schools were considered highly integrated, those in migrant-only classrooms at public schools had intermediate levels of integration, and children in private migrant schools had low integration. Emotion regulation and anxiety symptoms were assessed preintervention, postintervention, and three months postintervention.

Results
Postintervention and compared to the control group, children with high social integration in the MT arm showed increased cognitive reappraisal ability (p < .05) but higher physical anxiety (p < .01). Children with high social integration in the MT + LS arm had lower anxiety symptoms of harm avoidance (p < .01) and physical anxiety (p < .05). Children with low social integration in the MT + LS arm showed lower cognitive reappraisal (p < .01) and poorer overall emotion regulation abilities (p < .01). Three months later, children with intermediate integration in the MT + LS arm had lower separation anxiety (p < .05) and harm avoidance anxiety (p < .05). No other groups showed significant improvements in emotion regulation or reducing in anxiety symptoms three months postintervention.

Discussion
Mindfulness and LS training may benefit Chinese migrant children who have higher levels of social integration but increase anxiety in those with lower social integration. Future research should consider the sociocultural context in which a treatment is implemented.

To examine the association between electronic media exposure and parental language input, Language Environment Analysis technology was used to collect data on electronic media exposure and parental language input in 158 peri-urban and rural households with children aged 18–24 months in southwestern China. The sounds children made and the sounds they heard were quantified. Multiple linear regression and quantile linear regression were used to determine the relationship between electronic media and the outcomes of interest. The results showed that each hour of electronic media exposure was associated with reduced conversational turn count (p < .05) and child vocalization count (p < .05). A large share of the reduction was driven by the higher quantile of children. Reductions associated with electronic exposure were also observed in number of segments and conversational turns. These results may help explain the association between child electronic media exposure and language delay in an under-studied and at-risk population.

Childhood is a crucial period of psychological and social development, rendering individuals susceptible to developing mental health issues. Unfortunately, many countries around the world, including China, are facing a shortage of child psychiatrists, which is a significant concern. This Comment was conducted to clarify the current number of child psychiatrists in mainland China, to analyze the reasons for the shortages and to provide constructive suggestions for solving the current shortage.

Purpose
Literature has shown that the intergenerational transmission of cognitive abilities is stronger for children raised in more advantaged environments. However, there has never been an empirical investigation of this pattern in China. This study examines differences in the intergenerational transmission of cognitive capabilities among mothers and young children in urban and rural subpopulations in China and investigates whether these differences are driven by differences in parental investment in the home environment.

Design/methodology/approach
Data collected from randomly selected 6- to 36-month-old babies and their mothers in a Northwestern province in China was used. Child capabilities were assessed by the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development (3rd edition). Maternal intelligence quotient (IQ) scores were assessed with the Raven’s Progressive Matrices test. The non-parametric regression methods were used to construct the factor scores of child capabilities. The ordinary least squares (OLS) models were employed to investigate the relations between child cognition, maternal IQ and parental investment.

Findings
In urban households, where most children are raised in a positive home environment, child cognitive scores are strongly correlated with maternal IQ. In rural households, where parental investments are lower and more variable, child cognitive scores are not significantly correlated with maternal IQ but are predicted by differences in parental investments in a cognitively stimulating home environment.

Originality/value
This study provides a unique contribution by utilizing rural–urban disparities in China as a unique natural experiment to investigate differences in the transmission of cognitive capabilities across socioeconomic status (SES). It also provides the first empirical evidence of SES differences in the intergenerational transmission of cognitive capabilities in a developing country. This study reveals that intergenerational mother–child cognition associations are disrupted by poor parental investment in rural households but not in urban households.

Background
Comorbidity in mental disorders is prevalent among adolescents, with evidence suggesting a general psychopathology factor (“p” factor) that reflects shared mechanisms across different disorders. However, the association between the “p” factor and protective factors remains understudied. The current study aimed to explore the “p” factor, and its associations with psycho-social functioning, in Chinese adolescents.

Methods
2052 students, aged 9–17, were recruited from primary and secondary schools in Shanghai, China. Multiple rating scales were used to assess psychological symptoms and psycho-social functioning. Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to verify the fit of models involving different psychopathology domains such as externalizing, internalizing, and the “p” factor. Subsequently, structural equation models were used to explore associations between the extracted factors and psycho-social functioning, including emotion regulation, mindful attention awareness, self-esteem, self-efficacy, resilience, and perceived support.

Results
The bi-factor model demonstrated a good fit, with a “p” factor accounting for 46 % of symptom variation, indicating that the psychological symptoms of Chinese adolescents could be explained by internalizing, externalizing, and the “p” factor. Psychologically, a higher “p” was positively correlated with emotion suppression and negatively correlated with mindful attention awareness, emotion reappraisal, self-esteem, and resilience. Socially, a higher “p” was associated with decreased perceived support.

Limitations
Only common symptoms were included as this study was conducted at school. Furthermore, the cross-sectional design limited our ability to investigate causal relationships.

Conclusions
A “p” factor exists among Chinese adolescents. Individuals with higher “p” factor levels were prone to experience lower levels of psycho-social functions.

Background: To explore the associations between anxiety and depression symptoms and academic burnout among children and adolescents in China, and to examine the role of resilience and self-efficacy in addressing academic burnout.

Methods: A total of 2,070 students in grades 4–8 were recruited from two primary and three middle schools in Shanghai, completed the Elementary School Student Burnout Scale (ESSBS), the Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children-Chinese (MASC-C), the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D), the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC), and the General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSES), with 95.04% effective response rate. Multivariable regression analyses examining the associations between anxiety / depression symptoms and academic burnout (as well as the associations between resilience / self-efficacy and academic burnout) were performed using STATA 16.0 and SmartPLS 3.0.

Results: Anxiety symptoms (β = 0.124, p < 0.01) and depression symptoms (β = 0.477, p < 0.01) were positively correlated with academic burnout. Resilience partially mediated the association between depression symptoms and academic burnout (β = 0.059, p < 0.01), with a mediation rate of 12.37%. Self-efficacy partially mediated the associations between anxiety symptoms and academic burnout (β = 0.022, p < 0.01) and between depression symptoms and academic burnout (β = 0.017, p < 0.01), with mediation rates of 17.74% and 3.56%, respectively. Resilience and self-efficacy together (β = 0.041, p < 0.01) formed a mediating chain between depression symptoms and academic burnout, with a mediation rate of 8.6%.

Conclusions: Anxiety and depression symptoms were positively associated with academic burnout. Resilience and self-efficacy were found to mediate the associations partially.

EdTech,  which  includes  computer  assisted  learning  (CAL),  online  education,  and  remote instruction,  was  expanding  rapidly  even  before  the  current  full-scale  substitution  for  in-person learning  at  all  levels  of  education  around  the  world  because  of  COVID-19.  Studies  of  CAL interventions  often  find  positive  effects,  however,  these “CAL  programs”  often  include  non-technology based inputs such as more time on learning and instructional support by facilitators in addition to technology-based components. In this paper, we discuss the possible channels by which CAL programs affect academic outcomes among schoolchildren. We isolate the technology-based effects  of  CAL  from  the  total  program  effects  by  designing  a  novel  multi-treatment  field experiment with more than four thousand schoolchildren in rural China. For the full sample, we find null effects for both the total CAL program and the technology-based effects of CAL (which are measured relative to a traditional pencil-and-paper learning treatment) on math test scores. For boys, however, we find a positive and statistically significant effect of the CAL program, but  do not find evidence of a positive effect for the technology-based effect of CAL. When focusing on grades, we find evidence of positive CAL program effects but find null effects when we isolate the technology-based effects of CAL. Our empirical results suggest that the “Tech” in EdTech may have  relatively  small  additional  effects  on  academic  outcomes  and  yet  that  tech  programs  can substitute atleast to a certain extent for traditional learning.

Background: Maternal empowerment - the capacity to make decisions within households - is linked to better child feeding and nutritional outcomes, but few studies have considered the mediating role of caregiver knowledge. Further, existing literature centres primarily on the husband-wife dyad while overlooking grandmothers as important childcare decision-makers.

Methods: We collected primary data through household surveys in 2019 and 2021 from 1190 households with infants zero to six months living in rural western China. We identified the primary and secondary caregivers for each infant and assessed their feeding knowledge and practices, as well as infant nutritional status. We constructed a maternal empowerment index using a seven-item decision-making questionnaire and examined the relationship between maternal empowerment in childcare and household decisions, caregivers' feeding knowledge, and infant feeding practices and nutritional outcomes.

Results: Mothers had significantly higher levels of feeding knowledge than secondary caregivers (most were grandmothers, 72.7%), with average knowledge scores of 5.4 vs. 4.1, respectively, out of 9. Mothers and secondary caregivers with higher levels of feeding knowledge had significantly higher exclusive breastfeeding rates by 13-15 percentage points (P < 0.01) and 11-13 percentage points (P < 0.01), respectively. The knowledge of secondary caregivers was even more strongly associated with not feeding formula (15 percentage points, P < 0.01). Mothers empowered to make childcare decisions were more likely to exclusively breastfeed (12-13 percentage points, P < 0.01), less likely to formula feed (9-10 percentage points, P < 0.05), and more likely to have children with higher Z-scores for length-for-age (0.32-0.33, P < 0.01) and weight-for-age (0.24-0.25, P < 0.05). Effects remained after controlling for maternal feeding knowledge.

Conclusions: While mothers' and grandmothers' feeding knowledge was both important for optimal infant feeding, grandmothers' knowledge was particularly critical for practicing exclusive breastfeeding. Given the disparity in feeding knowledge between the two caregivers, our study further shows that mothers empowered in childcare decision-making were more likely to exclusively breastfeed their infants. This implies that some mothers with adequate knowledge may not practice optimal feeding because of lower decision-making power. Overall, our study highlights the role of secondary caregivers (grandmothers) in infant care and suggests that future child nutritional interventions may benefit from involving secondary caregivers (grandmothers).

Background: Comorbidity in mental disorders is prevalent among adolescents, with evidence suggesting a general psychopathology factor (“p” factor) that reflects shared mechanisms across different disorders. However, the association between the “p” factor and protective factors remains understudied. The current study aimed to explore the “p” factor, and its associations with psycho-social functioning, in Chinese adolescents.

Methods: 2052 students, aged 9–17, were recruited from primary and secondary schools in Shanghai, China. Multiple rating scales were used to assess psychological symptoms and psycho-social functioning. Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to verify the fit of models involving different psychopathology domains such as externalizing, internalizing, and the “p” factor. Subsequently, structural equation models were used to explore associations between the extracted factors and psycho-social functioning, including emotion regulation, mindful attention awareness, self-esteem, self-efficacy, resilience, and perceived support.

Results: The bi-factor model demonstrated a good fit, with a “p” factor accounting for 46 % of symptom variation, indicating that the psychological symptoms of Chinese adolescents could be explained by internalizing, externalizing, and the “p” factor. Psychologically, a higher “p” was positively correlated with emotion suppression and negatively correlated with mindful attention awareness, emotion reappraisal, self-esteem, and resilience. Socially, a higher “p” was associated with decreased perceived support.

Limitations: Only common symptoms were included as this study was conducted at school. Furthermore, the cross-sectional design limited our ability to investigate causal relationships.

Conclusions: A “p” factor exists among Chinese adolescents. Individuals with higher “p” factor levels were prone to experience lower levels of psycho-social functions.

This paper studies the unintended effect of English language requirement on educational inequality by investigating how the staggered rollout of English listening tests in China’s high-stakes National College Entrance Exam (NCEE) affected the rural–urban gap in college access. Leveraging administrative data covering the universe of NCEE participants between 1999 and 2003, we find that the introduction of English listening tests significantly lowered rural students’ exam score percentile ranks relative to their urban counterparts, resulting in a 30% increase in the rural–urban gap in college access. Our back-of-the-envelope calculations suggest that, as a result of this policy change, more than 54,000 rural students lost college seats to their urban peers between 1999 and 2003, and another 11,000 rural students who elite colleges could have admitted ended up in non-elite colleges, causing them significant future income losses.

Background
Mental health problems among children at preschool age are a common issue across the world. As shown in literature, a caregiver’s parenting style can play a critical role in child development. This study aims to examine the associations between a caregiver’s parenting style and the mental health problems (or not) of their child when he/she is at preschool age in rural China.

Methods
Participants were children, aged 49 to 65 months, and their primary caregivers. The primary caregivers of the sample children completed the Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire, Short Version, the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, and a questionnaire that elicited their socio-demographic characteristics. The level of cognitive development of each sample child was assessed using the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, Fourth Edition. Pearson correlation analysis, linear regression analysis, and multivariable regression analysis were used to analyze the data.

Results
The prevalence of mental health problems among sample children at preschool age was high (31.6%). If a caregiver practices an authoritative parenting style, it was found to be negatively associated with the mental health problems of their child. In contrast, a caregiver’s authoritarian parenting style was positively associated with the mental health problems of their child. Compared to those in a subgroup of primary caregivers that used a combination of low authoritative and low authoritarian parenting style, primary caregivers that used a combination of high authoritarian and low authoritative or a combination of high authoritative and high authoritarian were found to have positive association with child health problems. A number of demographic characteristics were found to be associated with the adoption of different parenting styles.

Conclusion
Different parenting styles (including authoritative, authoritarian, and combination of authoritative and authoritarian) of the sample caregivers had different associations with the mental health problems of the sample children. Parenting programs that aim to improve the parenting styles (favoring authoritative parenting styles) should be promoted in an effort to improve the status of child mental health in rural China.