Purpose
While peer effects in education have been extensively studied in developed countries, there has been limited investigation of how physical proximity shapes academic achievement in rural educational settings. This study examines peer effects among primary school students in rural China and investigates whether these effects operate differently across student ability levels through distinct mechanisms.

Design/methodology/approach
Data from 2,956 primary school students across rural counties in Shaanxi Province, China, were analyzed. We employ an instrumental variable approach using physical distance between students in classroom seating arrangements to address endogeneity in peer group formation. Study group formation is measured through student-reported study partnerships, while academic performance is assessed using standardized mathematics test scores.

Findings
Study groups significantly enhance student achievement, with heterogeneous effects across ability levels. Middle tercile students show the strongest peer effects (0.318 standard deviations), compared to bottom tercile students (0.241 standard deviations). Mechanism analysis reveals that peer effects operate primarily through improved intrinsic motivation, enhanced self-concept, and reduced academic anxiety among middle-performing students, while effects for bottom tercile students operate through alternative pathways not captured in our measures.

Research limitations/implications
Our findings inform cost-efficient policy interventions in both educational institutions and corporate environments. The evidence indicates that optimizing spatial proximity in peer networks represents an efficient policy instrument for human capital accumulation, particularly valuable in resource-constrained settings, as it leverages existing human capital without substantial additional inputs.

Originality/value
This study provides the first evidence of peer effects using classroom seating arrangements as an identification strategy in a developing country/rural community context. The paper demonstrates that optimizing peer proximity represents a cost-efficient policy instrument for human capital development in resource-constrained rural areas, offering important implications for educational policy in agricultural communities where traditional educational resources are limited.

Caregivers' ability to access, engage with, and critically evaluate digital information on parenting practices (henceforth, “e-parenting literacy”) is emerging as an increasingly important determinant of early childhood development (ECD) outcomes. Therefore, the current study provides empirical evidence of the role of e-parenting literacy for ECD outcomes of 6- to 24-month-olds (N = 564) in rural households in a coastal province in East-China. The study focuses on the role of e-parenting literacy of the two most common types of primary caregivers (i.e., persons in charge of the daily care) of young children in the study region: mother and grandmother caregivers. Empirical results show that 76% of the primary caregivers (N = 429) are mothers, the remaining 135 primary caregivers are grandmothers. Overall, e-parenting literacy is found to be positively and significantly associated with children's early cognitive development outcomes. Furthermore, a heterogeneity analysis shows that e-parenting literacy is positively and significantly associated with children's early cognitive and language outcomes when the primary caregiver is a grandmother, but not when the primary caregiver is a mother. This may reflect greater heterogeneity in grandmothers' digital device use and e-parenting literacy, while most mothers already possess adequate e-parenting skills. Additionally, older children (i.e., 16- to 24-month-olds), who may require more advanced parenting skills than their slightly younger peers, are also found to benefit more from gains in e-parenting literacy. This research highlights how digital inclusion can help to bridge gaps in caregiving practices and developmental opportunities of young children growing up in developing settings.

Background: High rates of iron-deficiency anemia among school-age children have been a common issue in developing countries. In 2012, China rolled out a school feeding program (SFP) to address this issue. This study assesses changes in anemia rates, as well as potential factors driving these changes, both 3 and 10 years after the SFP was implemented.

Methods: Data were from two cross-sectional surveys (n = 1510) in northwestern China. T-tests were used to compare the differences in health outcomes of students and their dietary diversity across the different sample years. Regressions were used to examine the associations between health outcomes and dietary diversity.

Results: After the SFP was launched, hemoglobin levels of students improved from 126 to 131 g/L between 2015 and 2022/2023; the rates of anemia and stunting decreased from 17% to 6% and 9% to 1%, respectively. A rise in student dietary diversity and an increase in the share of students that consumed iron-rich foods are two main contributing factors.

Implications for School Health Policy, Practice, and Equity: Increase in funding allotted to the SFP over time appears to be a key element in improving the health and nutrition of rural students.

Conclusions: SFP in rural China exemplifies the concrete advantages in improving the health and potential educational outcomes of students.

The connections between bullying and student well-being in rural areas are not well understood, particularly among younger, more vulnerable students. This study aims to explore the relationship between bullying experiences and the academic performance and mental health of primary and junior high school students in rural China. The sample comprised 1609 students from 30 schools (20 primary schools and 10 junior high schools) in Gansu province. A self-report questionnaire was used to collect data on students’ demographics, bullying experiences, mental health, and social support. Additionally, a 30-minute standardized math test was administered to assess academic performance. Results indicated that bullying was prevalent in rural settings, with 42.64% of students reporting being bullied and 12.74% experiencing it weekly. A significant correlation was found between bullying experiences and both lower academic performance and higher risk of mental health problems, such as depression and anxiety. These correlations became more pronounced with increased frequency of bullying incidents. We also found that female students and younger students who were bullied were more likely to report mental health issues. Furthermore, social support could diminish, but not entirely counteract, the adverse associations between bullying and mental health. These findings highlight the prevalence of bullying among rural students in this age group and demonstrate the associated negative outcomes for their mental health and academic performance. They also emphasize the need for targeted attention and the development of intervention programs, including enhanced school-based anti-bullying initiatives and improved social support systems.

Background: Poor mental health affects caregivers' parenting practices and threatens the early development of children under 2 years old. This study examined the correlations between caregivers' mental health and parenting practices among 5- to 24-month-old children in rural China.

Methods: Data were collected in two cohorts (October 2022 and March 2023) from 948 households randomly sampled from 120 villages. Dependent variable: parenting practices measured by the Family Care Indicators (FCI). Independent variables: caregiver mental health (DASS-21), perceived social support (MSPSS) and socioeconomic status (SES; household asset index, caregiver education). Models adjusted for child age, child sex, caregiver age and household size, with standard errors clustered at the village level.

Results: Although caregivers provided more play materials for their children compared to previous research, the variety of play materials did not improve. Depressive symptoms among caregivers were associated with inadequate parenting practices, particularly with providing a lower variety of play materials. Both lower SES and more severe caregiver depressive symptoms were linked to less stimulating parenting, whereas higher perceived social support was associated with more stimulating practices and partially attenuated these SES- and mental health–related disparities.

Conclusion: Although rural Chinese caregivers now supply more play materials, limited diversity and widespread caregiver mental health risks persist. Strengthening caregiver mental health and social support could enrich home stimulation and improve early childhood development.

Using reading performance data from a randomized controlled trial of 5224 fifth-grade students in East China, this paper provides a novel test of the hypothesis that evoking a gender stereotype creates gender gaps in education through self-fulfilling prophecies. We found that without intervention, boys performed worse than girls did in reading tests. Evoking a gender stereotype by indicating the expected outperformance of girls over boys in reading had a significantly negative effect on boys and an insignificant effect on girls. As a result, the net effect on the gender gap in reading performance was economically important but statistically insignificant. We also found evidence that increased anxiety was likely the underlying mechanism. Finally, a heterogeneous analysis showed that boys from environments with biased gender role beliefs were more susceptible to the intervention.

This paper examines whether education can play a role in mitigating gender inequality in the process of sectoral reallocation of labour. We exploit the exogenous variations in educational attainment induced by the implementation of the 1986 Compulsory Education Law (CEL) in China. Using data from the 2018 wave of the China Family Panel Studies (CFPS) and a cohort difference-in-differences (DID) approach, we find that the CEL narrowed the gender gap in education for rural residents, but it did not reduce gender inequality in labour market outcomes, such as wage labour participation and wage rate. Our analysis reveals that this persistent inequality in labour market outcomes can be attributed to gender differences in migration and occupational choices. Specifically, rural males exposed to the CEL were more likely to migrate outside local provinces and work in low-skilled manufacturing sectors, while rural females tended to stay within local counties and work in low-skilled service sectors. Furthermore, we provide evidence that their differential migration responses are driven by household labour divisions and social gender norms, rather than disparities in cognitive skills.

Despite investments in teacher education programs, teacher shortages persist in rural areas of many low- and middle-income countries. Using data from 1860 tuition-free students, we examine factors influencing enrollment in China's Tuition-Free Normal Education (TNE) program and their implications for teacher recruitment and retention in rural schools. Descriptive analysis and OLS regression reveal that TNE students mostly come from larger, poorer families, and enroll for job security and financial benefits. Many aspire to teach but resist rural placements, risking non-compliance. These findings can guide the design and reform of programs to attract qualified teachers to rural areas in China and abroad.